NLP Interview Questions and Answers- Part 2

Answer:

Sentiment analysis, also known as opinion mining, is a natural language processing (NLP) technique used to determine the emotional tone behind a piece of text. The goal of sentiment analysis is to identify whether a given text expresses a positive, negative, or neutral sentiment.

Here’s a general overview of how sentiment analysis can be performed using NLP techniques:

• The first step is to gather the text data you want to analyze.
• Once you have the data, you need to preprocess it to make it suitable for analysis.
• Next, you need to convert the preprocessed text into a format that can be understood by machine learning algorithms.
• Before training any machine learning model, you need labeled data. This is typically done manually, where human annotators assign sentiment labels to each text sample.
• Once you have labeled data and numerical representations of the text, you can train a machine learning model.
• After training the model, you need to evaluate its performance using a separate set of labeled data.
• After the model is trained and evaluated, you can use it to predict the sentiment of new, unlabeled text data.
• In many cases, the performance of the initial model can be improved by fine-tuning on domain-specific or task-specific data. This process is known as transfer learning.

Answer:

The Transformer model is a deep learning architecture. It revolutionized natural language processing tasks by leveraging the concept of self-attention mechanisms, enabling it to capture long-range dependencies in sequential data. The Transformer architecture has become the foundation for various state-of-the-art models in NLP, including BERT, GPT, and more.

Answer:

The BERT model works in the following ways:

• BERT is pre-trained on a massive corpus of text data in an unsupervised manner. During pre-training, the model learns to predict missing words in a sentence and understand the relationships between words in a sentence.
• BERT is built upon the Transformer architecture, which is based on self-attention mechanisms. It allows BERT to process input sequences in parallel, making it more efficient compared to traditional sequential models.
• Unlike traditional language models that read text in a unidirectional manner, BERT is bidirectional. It processes the entire input sequence at once, allowing the model to have a deeper understanding of the context based on both the left and right contexts.
• Before feeding the text to BERT, it needs to be tokenized into smaller sub words or tokens.
• BERT takes variable-length text inputs, and the input sequence is prepared with special tokens.
• In the pre-training phase, BERT randomly masks some of the input tokens and tries to predict the original words from the surrounding context. This bidirectional approach allows BERT to capture deep contextual information.
• Additionally, BERT is pre-trained on the task of predicting whether two sentences are consecutive in the input or randomly swapped.
• After pre-training, BERT can be fine-tuned on specific downstream NLP tasks such as text classification, named entity recognition, sentiment analysis, etc.
• During fine-tuning, the pre-trained weights are updated on task-specific data to adapt BERT for the target task.

Answer:

Some popular NLP libraries and frameworks include:

1. • NLTK (Natural Language Toolkit)
   • spaCy
   • Transformers (Hugging Face)
   • Stanford NLP
   • CoreNLP (Stanford CoreNLP)

Answer:

The regular expressions (regex) are powerful tools used for text processing and pattern matching. A regular expression is a sequence of characters that defines a search pattern. It allows you to find and manipulate text based on specific rules or patterns. Regular expressions are widely used in various programming languages and NLP libraries to perform tasks such as text extraction, tokenization, search, and data cleaning.

Answer:

In NLP, regular expressions can be applied to:

• Tokenization: Breaking a text into individual words or tokens based on specific patterns, such as space, punctuation, or other delimiters.
• Pattern matching: Finding occurrences of specific patterns or sequences of characters within a text.
• Entity recognition: Identifying named entities like names, dates, locations, etc., based on predefined patterns.
• Text cleaning: Removing unwanted characters, symbols, or formatting from the text using regular expression substitutions.
• Text segmentation: Dividing a text into meaningful units (sentences, paragraphs, etc.) based on patterns like periods, line breaks, etc.

Answer:

In the context of Natural Language Processing (NLP), a regular grammar refers to a type of formal grammar used to describe regular languages. Formal grammars are sets of rules that define the structure and syntax of languages. Regular languages are a class of languages that can be recognized and generated by finite-state automata, which are computational devices with a finite number of states.

Answer:

NLP (Natural Language Processing) and NLU (Natural Language Understanding) are two related but distinct fields within the domain of artificial intelligence and language processing.

• NLP focuses on the interaction between computers and human language. It involves the processing and manipulation of natural language data, aiming to enable computers to understand, interpret, and generate human language. NLP tasks include tasks such as text tokenization, part-of-speech tagging, named entity recognition, sentiment analysis, and machine translation. NLP is concerned with various aspects of language processing, but it does not necessarily involve deep understanding of the meaning or context behind the language.
• NLU, on the other hand, is a subset of NLP and delves deeper into the comprehension of human language. NLU aims to enable computers to grasp the meaning and context of natural language input in a way that a human would understand it. It involves higher-level language processing tasks such as semantic analysis, text understanding, and context-based interpretation. NLU is concerned with extracting meaningful information from the text, understanding the intent behind the language, and making connections between different pieces of information.

Answer:

Pragmatic analysis in Natural Language Processing (NLP) refers to the process of understanding and interpreting the meaning of text or speech in context, taking into consideration the real-world implications, intentions, and actions associated with the language used. Unlike purely syntactic or semantic analyses, pragmatic analysis delves into the subtleties of language use, including implied meanings, indirect speech acts, and context-dependent interpretations.

Answer:

Precision and recall are two important metrics used to evaluate the performance of machine learning models, particularly in tasks like binary classification, information retrieval, and search engines. They provide insights into how well a model is performing in identifying and classifying positive instances from a dataset.

Answer:

Text summarization refers to the process of automatically generating a concise and coherent summary from a longer piece of text, such as an article, blog post, or document. The goal of text summarization is to capture the most important and relevant information within the original text while maintaining its core meaning and context.

Answer:

Text summarization can be broadly categorized into two main types:

• Extractive Summarization: In extractive summarization, the algorithm identifies and extracts the most important sentences or phrases from the original text to create a summary. These selected sentences are typically existing sentences directly from the original text. The advantage of this approach is that it retains the exact wording used in the source text, but it can sometimes result in less coherence and fluency in the generated summary.
• Abstractive Summarization: Abstractive summarization involves generating a summary by paraphrasing and rephrasing the original content. The algorithm uses natural language generation techniques to construct new sentences that convey the essential information from the input text. This approach allows for more human-like summaries, but it can be challenging to ensure accuracy and coherence.

Answer:

Here are some of the top NLP tools that were highly regarded:

• NLTK (Natural Language Toolkit)
• Transformers (Hugging Face)
• Gensim
• CoreNLP
• AllenNLP
• spaCy
• Stanford NLP
• FastText
• Flair
• TextBlob

Answer:

Latent Semantic Indexing (LSI) is a technique used in natural language processing and information retrieval to identify the underlying relationships between words and concepts in a given set of documents. The goal of LSI is to improve the accuracy and efficiency of information retrieval systems by capturing the latent, or hidden, semantic structure of the text.

Answer:

In natural language processing (NLP), collocation refers to a linguistic phenomenon where certain words tend to appear together more often than would be expected by chance. In other words, collocations are combinations of words that have a higher likelihood of occurring together in a specific context or language.

Answer:

In the context of NLP, the Turing Test involves a human evaluator interacting with a machine and a human through a computer interface without knowing which is which. The evaluator’s task is to engage in a conversation with both entities (the machine and the human) by asking questions, exchanging messages, or discussing various topics. If the evaluator cannot reliably distinguish between the machine’s responses and the human’s responses, the machine is said to have passed the Turing Test.

Answer:

A hapax or hapax legomenon refers to a word that appears only once in a given context, corpus, or dataset. The term “hapax legomenon” is derived from the Greek words “hapax” (meaning “once”) and “legomenon” (meaning “said”).

Hapax legomena are interesting linguistic phenomena because they represent words that occur uniquely, making them rare and potentially difficult to analyze. In NLP tasks, such as text classification, sentiment analysis, or topic modeling, hapax legomena can pose challenges as they lack sufficient occurrences for the model to learn their patterns or meanings effectively.

Answer:

Here are different types of linguistic ambiguities:

• Lexical Ambiguity: This type of ambiguity arises from words that have multiple meanings, known as homonyms or polysemous words. The context is required to determine the intended meaning.
• Structural Ambiguity: This occurs when the syntactic structure of a sentence allows for more than one interpretation. Usually, the ambiguity is resolved by considering the overall context.
• Semantic Ambiguity: Semantic ambiguity occurs when a word or phrase has multiple interpretations based on the context.
• Referential Ambiguity: This type of ambiguity arises when a pronoun or noun phrase can refer to more than one entity in the context.
• Syntactic Ambiguity: This ambiguity occurs due to multiple possible ways of parsing a sentence’s structure, leading to different meanings.

Answer:

Information extraction (IE) in natural language processing (NLP) is a subfield that focuses on automatically extracting structured information from unstructured textual data. Unstructured textual data refers to text that lacks a predefined format or is not organized in a specific way, such as news articles, social media posts, or emails. The goal of information extraction is to convert this unstructured data into a structured format that can be easily processed and analyzed by computers.

Answer:

POS Tagging stands for Part-of-Speech Tagging, also known as grammatical tagging or word-category disambiguation. It is a natural language processing (NLP) task where each word in a given text is assigned a specific part-of-speech tag based on its context and role in the sentence.